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High Medieval Politics and Economics |
| Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Bernard of Angers: Miracles of St. Foy, Pope Gregory VII Bans Lay Investiture, Letter From Emperor Henry IV , Song of Roland, Magna Carta |
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (981-1001)
A.D. 981. In this year was St. Petroc's-stow
plundered; and in the same year was
much harm done everywhere by the sea-coast, both
upon Devonshire and Wales. . . .
A.D. 982. In this year came up in Dorsetshire
three ships of the pirates, and plundered
in Portland. The same year London was burned.
In the same year also died two aldermen,
Ethelmer in Hampshire, and Edwin
in Sussex. Ethelmer's body lieth in Winchester,
at New-minster, and Edwin's in the minster
at Abingdon. The same year died two
abbesses in Dorsetshire; Herelufa
at Shaftsbury, and Wulfwina at Wareham.
The same year went Otho, emperor
of the Romans, into Greece; and there
met he a great army of the Saracens,
who came up from the sea, and would have
proceeded forthwith to plunder the Christian
folk; but the emperor fought with
them. And there was much slaughter made
on either side, but the emperor gained
the field of battle. . . .
A.D. 991. This year was Ipswich plundered;
and very soon afterwards was Alderman
Britnoth (47) slain at Maldon. In this same
year it was resolved that tribute should
be given, for the first time, to
the Danes, for the great terror they occasioned
by the sea-coast. That was first
10,000 pounds. The first who advised
this measure was Archbishop Siric. . .
.
A.D. 993. This year came Anlaf with three
and ninety ships to Staines, which
he plundered without, and went thence
to Sandwich. Thence to Ipswich, which
he laid waste; and so to Maidon, where Alderman
Britnoth came against him with his force,
and fought with him; and there they
slew the alderman, and gained the field of
battle; whereupon peace was made with
him, and the king received him afterwards
at episcopal hands by the advice of Siric,
Bishop of Canterbury, and Elfeah of Winchester.
This year was Bamborough destroyed,
and much spoil was there taken. Afterwards
came the army to the mouth of the Humber;
and there did much evil both in Lindsey
and in Northumbria. . . .
A.D. 999. This year came the army about
again into the Thames, and went up
thence along the Medway to Rochester;
where the Kentish army came against
them, and encountered them in a close engagement;
but, alas! they too soon yielded and fled;
because they had not the aid that
they should have had. The Danes therefore
occupied the field of battle, and, taking
horse, they rode as wide as they
would, spoiling and overrunning nearly
all West-Kent. Then the king with
his council determined to proceed against
them with sea and land forces; but as
soon as the ships were ready, then
arose delay from day to day, which harassed
the miserable crew that lay on board;
so that, always, the forwarder it
should have been, the later it was, from
one time to another; -- they still
suffered the army of their enemies to
increase; -- the Danes continually
retreated from the sea-coast;-- and they continually
pursued them in vain. Thus in the end
these expeditions both by sea and
land served no other purpose but to vex
the people, to waste their treasure, and
to strengthen their
enemies. "
A.D. 1001. This year there was great commotion
in England in consequence of an invasion
by the Danes, who spread terror and devastation
wheresoever they went, plundering and
burning and desolating the country
with such rapidity, that they advanced
in one march as far as the town of
Alton; where the people of Hampshire
came against them, and fought with them.
There was slain Ethelwerd, high-steward
of the king, and Leofric of Whitchurch,
and Leofwin, high-steward of the king,
and Wulfhere, a bishop's thane, and
Godwin of Worthy, son of Bishop Elfsy;
and of all the men who were engaged
with them eighty-one. Of the Danes
there was slain a much greater number,
though they remained in possession
of the field of battle. Thence they proceeded westward,
until they came into Devonshire; where
Paley came to meet them with the
ships which he was able to collect; for
he had shaken off his allegiance
to King Ethelred, against all the vows of
truth and fidelity which he had given
him, as well as the presents which
the king had bestowed on him in houses
and gold and silver. And they burned
Teignton, and also many other goodly towns
that we cannot name; and then peace was
there concluded with them. . . .
Question: How might these reports be interpreted?
Bernard of Angers: Miracles of St. Foy (1010)
The day before the vigil of Saint Foy, [Vuitbert] had fallen to sleep when he saw before him a young girl of indescribable beauty. Her appearance was like that of an angel. Her face shone and appeared with droplets of rose and scarlet. Her expression surpassed all human beauty. Her size was as had been read that it was in the time of her passion, that of an adolescent, not yet of mature age. She wore majestic clothing entirely brocaded of gold and surrounded by a variety of subtle colors. Her wide sleeves, carefully pleated, fell to her feet. She wore on her head a diadem decorated with four gems from which radiated extraordinary light. The smallness of her body seems to me to have signified nothing more than that at the time of her passion, as we have said, one reads that she had been a youth. . . .
Thus the saint, leaning on the bedpost softly touched the right cheek of the sleeper and whispered to him, "Vuitbert, are you asleep?" He answered, "Who is there?" "I am Saint Foy," she replied. "My lady, why have you come to me?" "Simply to see you." Vuitbert thanked her, and Saint Foy replied, "Do you know me?" He recognized her as if he had already seen her and answered, "Yes, I see you well, my lady, and I recognize you perfectly." "Tell me how you are and how your affairs are doing." "Very well, my Lady, and all is going very well. Everything succeeds for me by the grace of God." "What," she said, "how can all be going well when you cannot see the light of the heavens?" But he, as happens in dreams, thought that he could see although he could not. This last question reminded him of his torn out eyes. "How could I see," he asked, "when, last year, while returning from your feast, alas, I lost my eyes by the brutality of an unjust master?" The saint said, "He offended God too much and raised the anger of the Creator, he who harmed you so seriously in your body without your having merited it. But if tomorrow, on the vigil of my martyrdom, you go to Conques, and you buy two candles and place one before the altar of the Holy Savior, the other before the altar where my bodily clay is placed, you will merit to enjoy the complete restoration of your eyes. For with a great supplication concerning the injury done you I moved the piety of the divine Judge to mercy. I bothered God by my incessant prayers until I obtained for you this cure." After these words she still insisted and urged him to go to Conques and encouraged him because he hesitated before the expense. "A thousand people, whom you have never before seen," she said, "will give to you. So that you can easily complete the present business, go quickly at dawn to the church of this parish, (this was the parish who had deprived him of his eyes, which since ancient times was called Espeyrac) and hear Mass there, and you will receive six pence." He thanked her as a benefactor deserved and the celestial power left him. He awoke immediately and went to the church where he told his vision. People thought that he was delirious. But not at all discouraged, he went through the crowd asking each in order to obtain twelve pence. Finally a certain Hugo, moving apart from the others, opened his purse and offered him six pence and one obole, that is, a little more than the vision had announced. This first success increased his confidence. What more can I say? He arrived at Conques, told his vision to the monks, bought the candles, presented them to the altar, and started the vigil before the golden statue of the holy martyr.
Around midnight it seemed to him that he could see as though two small glowing berries, no larger than the fruit of a laurel, came from above and buried themselves deeply into his gouged eye sockets. At the shock, his thoughts became muddled and he fell asleep. But at the hour of lauds the chanting of the psalms awoke him and he seemed to see spots of light and the silhouettes of people moving about, but he had an unbelievable headache and only half conscious he thought that he was dreaming. . . . He raised his hands to his eyes and touched those windows of his flesh returned to the light and entirely reconstituted. He went to tell his neighbors and broke forth in praises for the immeasurable magnificence of Christ. This causes an indescribable rejoicing. Each person asked himself if he was dreaming or if he had actually seen an extraordinary miracle. . . .
Question: What elements of this story reveal the down-to-earth sources of spiritual faith?
Pope Gregory VII Bans Lay Investiture (1073)
Inasmuch as we have learned that, contrary to the establishments of the holy fathers, the investiture with churches is, in many places, performed by lay persons; and that from this case many disturbances arise in the church by which the Christian religion is trodden under foot: we decree that no one of the clergy shall receive the investiture with a bishopric or abbey or church from the hand of an emperor or king or of any lay person, male or female. But if he shall presume to do so he shall clearly know that such investiture is bereft of apostolic authority, and that he himself shall lie under excommunication until fitting satisfaction shall have been rendered.
Letter from Emperor Henry IV to Pope Gregory VII (1076)
Henry, king not through usurpation but through the holy ordination of God, to Hildebrand, at present not pope but false monk. Such greeting as this hast thou merited through thy disturbances, inasmuch as there is no grade in the church which thou hast omitted to make a partaker not of honour but of confusion, not of benediction but of malediction. For, to mention few and especial cases out of many, not only hast thou not feared to lay hands upon the rulers of the holy church, the anointed of the Lord -- the archbishops, namely, bishops and priests -- but thou hast trodden them under foot like slaves ignorant of what their master is doing. Thou hast won favour from the common herd by crushing them; thou hast looked upon all of them as knowing nothing, upon thy sole self, moreover, as knowing all things. This knowledge, however, thou hast used not for edification but for destruction; so that with reason we believe that St. Gregory, whose name thou has usurped for thyself, was prophesying concerning thee when he said: "The pride of him who is in power increases the more, the greater the number of those subject to him; and he thinks that he himself can do more than all." And we, indeed, have endured all this, being eager to guard the honour of the apostolic see; thou, however, has understood our humility to be fear, and hast not, accordingly, shunned to rise up against the royal power conferred upon us by God, daring to threaten to divest us of it. As if we had received our kingdom from thee! As if the kingdom and the empire were in thine and not in God's hand! And this although our Lord Jesus Christ did call us to the kingdom, did not, however, call thee to the priesthood. For thou has ascended by the following steps. By wiles, namely, which the profession of monk abhors, thou has achieved money; by money, favour; by the sword, the throne of peace. And from the throne of peace thou hast disturbed peace, inasmuch as thou hast armed subjects against those in authority over them; inasmuch as thou, who wert not called, hast taught that our bishops called of God are to be despised; inasmuch as thou hast usurped for laymen and the ministry over their priests, allowing them to depose or condemn those whom they themselves had received as teachers from the hand of God through the laying on of hands of the bishops. On me also who, although unworthy to be among the anointed, have nevertheless been anointed to the kingdom, thou hast lain thy hand; me whoas the tradition of the holy Fathers teaches, declaring that I am not to be deposed for any crime unless, which God forbid, I should have strayed from the faith-am subject to the judgment of God alone. For the wisdom of the holy fathers committed even Julian the apostate not to themselves, but to God alone, to be judged and to be deposed. For himself the true pope, Peter, also exclaims: "Fear God, honour the king." But thou who does not fear God, dost dishonour in me his appointed one. Wherefore St. Paul, when he has not spared an angel of Heaven if he shall have preached otherwise, has not excepted thee also who dost teach other-wise upon earth. For he says: "If any one, either I or an angel from Heaven, should preach a gospel other than that which has been preached to you, he shall be damned." Thou, therefore, damned by this curse and by the judgment of all our bishops and by our own, descend and relinquish the apostolic chair which thou has usurped. Let another ascend the throne of St. Peter, who shall not practise violence under the cloak of religion, but shall teach the sound doctrine of St. Peter. I Henry, king by the grace of God, do say unto thee, together with all our bishops: Descend, descend, to be damned throughout the ages.
Questions: What points are central to the argument between Henry IV and Gregory VII? Is more than investiture at stake?
Song
of Roland (11th century)
Rolland (Rollanz) and his companion Oliver
fight the enemy from the rear of Charlemagne's
guard.
1070 "Comrade Rollanz, once sound your
olifant!
If Charles hear, where in the pass he stands,
I pledge you now, they'll turn again, the
Franks."
"Never, by God," then answers him Rollanz,
"Shall it be said by any living man,
1075 That for pagans I took my horn in
hand!
Never by me shall men reproach my clan.
When I am come into the battle grand,
And blows lay on, by hundred, by thousand,
Of Durendal bloodied you'll see the brand.
1080 Franks are good men; like vassals
brave they'll stand;
Nay, Spanish men from death have no warrant."
....
1110 When Rollant sees that now must be
combat,
More fierce he's found than lion or leopard;
The Franks he calls, and Oliver commands:
"Now say no more, my friends, nor thou,
comrade.
That Emperour, who left us Franks on guard,
1115 A thousand score stout men he set
apart,
And well he knows, not one will prove coward.
Man for his lord should suffer with good
heart,
Of bitter cold and great heat bear the
smart,
His blood let drain, and all his flesh
be scarred.
1120 Strike with thy lance, and I with
Durendal,
With my good sword that was the King's
reward.
So, if I die, who has it afterward
Noble vassal's he well may say it was."
... To Spanish pass is Rollanz now
going
On Veillantif, his good steed, galloping;
He is well armed, pride is in his bearing,
1155 He goes, so brave, his spear in hand
holding,
He goes, its point against the sky turning;
A gonfalon all white thereon he's pinned,
Down to his hand flutters the golden fringe:
Noble his limbs, his face clear and smiling.
1160 His companion goes after, following,
The men of France their warrant find in
him.
Proudly he looks towards the Sarrazins,
And to the Franks sweetly, himself humbling;
And courteously has said to them this thing:
1165 "My
lords barons, go now your pace holding!
Pagans are come great martyrdom seeking;
Noble and fair reward this day shall bring,
Was never won by any Frankish King."
Upon these words the hosts are come touching.
...
The count Rollanz, he canters through the
field,
Holds Durendal, he well can thrust and
wield,
1340 Right great damage he's done the
Sarrazines
You'd seen them, one on other, dead in
heaps,
Through all that place their blood was
flowing clear!
In blood his arms were and his hauberk
steeped,
And bloodied o'er, shoulders and neck,
his steed.
1345 And Oliver goes on to strike with
speed;
No blame that way deserve the dozen peers,
For all the Franks they strike and slay
with heat,
Pagans are slain, some swoon there in their
seats,
Says the Archbishop: "Good baronage indeed!"
1350 "Monjoie" he cries, the call of
Charles repeats.
[Roland is mortally wounded]
1355 But Rollant felt that death had
made a way
Down from his head till on his heart it
lay;
Beneath a pine running in haste he came,
On the green grass he lay there on his
face;
His olifant and sword beneath him placed,
2360 Turning his head towards the pagan
race,
Now this he did, in truth, that Charles
might say
(As he desired) and all the Franks his
race; --
'Ah, gentle count; conquering he was slain!'
--
He owned his faults often and every way,
2365 And for his sins his glove to God
upraised.
But Rollant feels he's no more time to
seek;
Looking to Spain, he lies on a sharp peak,
And with one hand upon his breast he beats:
"Mea Culpa! God, by Thy Virtues clean
2370 Me from my sins, the mortal and the mean, Which from the hour that I was born have been Until this day, when life is ended here!" Holds out his glove towards God, as he speaks Angels descend from heaven on that scene.
Question:
Fact: What's happening in this scene?
Interpretation: What does this story tell
us about medieval aristocratic values?
John, by the grace of God, king of England, lord of Ireland, duke of Normandy and Aquitaine, count of Anjou, to the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, justiciars, foresters, sheriffs, reeves, servants and all bailiffs and his faithful people greeting. . . .
In the first place we have granted to God, and by this our present charter confirmed, for us and our heirs forever, that the English church shall be free, and shall hold its rights entire and its liberties uninjured; and we will that it thus be observed; which is shown by this, that the freedom of elections, which is considered to be most important and especially necessary to the English church, we, of our pure and spontaneous will, granted, and by our charter confirmed, before the contest between us and our barons had arisen; and obtained a confirmation of it by the lord Pope Innocent III; which we will observe and which we will shall be observed in good faith by our heirs forever.
We have granted moreover to all free men of our kingdom for us and our heirs forever all the liberties written below, to be had and holden by themselves and their heirs from us and our heirs. . . .
No widow shall be compelled to marry so long as she prefers to live without a husband, provided she gives security that she will not marry without our consent, if she holds from us, or without the consent of her lord from whom she holds, if she holds from another. . . .
No one shall be compelled to perform any greater service for a knight's fee, or for any other free tenement than is owed from it. . . .
No sheriff or bailiff of ours or any one else shall take horses or wagons of any free man for carrying purposes except on the permission of that free man.
Neither we nor our bailiffs will take the wood of another man for castles, or for anything else which we are doing, except by the permission of him to whom the wood belongs.
No free man shall be taken or imprisoned or dispossessed, or outlawed, or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we go upon him, nor send upon him, except by the legal judgment of his peers or by the law of the land. . . .
If anyone shall have been dispossessed or removed by us without legal judgment of his peers, from his lands, castles, franchises, or his right we will restore them to him immediately. . .
All fines which have been imposed unjustly and against the law of the land, and all penalties imposed unjustly and against the law of the land are altogether excused, or will be on the judgment of the twenty-five barons of whom mention is made below in connection with the security of the peace, or on the judgment of the majority of them, along with the aforesaid Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury. . . .
Since, moreover, for the sake of God, and for the improvement of kingdom, and for the better quieting of the hostility sprung up lately between us and our barons, we have made all these concessions; wishing them to enjoy these in a complete and firm stability forever, we make and concede to them the security described below; that is to say, that they shall elect twenty-five barons of the kingdom, whom they will, who ought with all their power to observe, hold, and cause to be observed, the peace and liberties which we have conceded to them. . . .
Questions:
Fact: What difficulties might have caused the barons to force John to sign this document?
Interpretation: How did the aristocratic barons gain power through this document?
Analysis: To what extent could this document be used to show the founding of democracy?